According to common law, how is real property ownership defined in relation to the earth and heavens?

Ownership of real property in common law is defined to extend from the center of the earth upward to the heavens. This principle is rooted in the idea that property rights grant the owner full control over the land and everything attached to it vertically, which includes both subterranean resources and air rights above the land. This expansive view of property rights ensures that landowners have the legal authority to benefit from resources found below the surface, such as minerals or fossil fuels, as well as the right to control airspace to a reasonable extent above their property.

In contrast, the other options highlight more limited interpretations of property rights. One option suggests ownership only extends to the surface, which ignores the valuable aspects of subterranean and aerial rights. Another option states ownership is limited to the boundaries of the property, which could imply exclusion of both subterranean and aerial claims altogether. Lastly, suggesting that ownership is determined by government regulations overlooks the foundational common law principles that assert ownership rights in a more expansive manner without reliance on regulatory frameworks.